The Doctrine of the Affections: Music and Emotion in the Baroque Era

For modern listeners, music is a journey through many different feelings. A single song might start mournful, become hopeful, and end in passionate joy. However, for composers in the Baroque era music was treated differently. The goal was to focus on, perfect, and maintain one single emotion per movement. This powerful idea was known as the Doctrine of the Affections.

The Concept: What is a 'Affection'?

The Doctrine of the Affections (or Affektenlehre in German) was a dominant aesthetic theory that guided Baroque composers from roughly 1600 to 1750.

In this context, an "affection" was not just a passing mood, but a fixed, rationalized emotional state, such as joy, sorrow, rage, tranquility, or love.

The core belief was that music should not describe an entire emotional story, but rather focus on one specific emotion, evoke it in the listener, and maintain it from start to finish. If a piece began with "joy," every note, rhythm, and harmony was designed to keep that feeling constant.

How Composers Created and Maintained a Single Emotion

Baroque composers used specific musical elements, or "figures", to code and express a single affection. These techniques were applied consistently throughout a movement.#

1. Melody and Pacing

The shape and speed of the main tune were crucial for establishing the affection.

Joy or Elation

Composers used fast, upward-moving scale fragments (like a person jumping for joy) and active, lively melodic lines.

Vivaldi's Spring from The Four Seasons: The opening movement (Allegro) is an iconic example, using brilliant, fast, upward-moving violin arpeggios and scales to express the bright, bursting energy of spring and joy.

Sorrow or Grief

Melodies were often slow, descending (like sinking in despair), and frequently involved chromaticism (using half-steps to create a painful, yearning sound).

Purcell's Dido's Lament ("When I am laid in earth") from the opera Dido and Aeneas: The piece is built over a slow, descending four-note bass line (basso ostinato or ground bass) that is famously chromatic, creating a deep, unrelenting sense of fate and sorrow.

Rage or Fury

A composer might use jagged, disjunct melodies with wide, frantic leaps.

Handel's "Why do the nations so furiously rage together" from Messiah: This bass aria is a perfect demonstration of musical fury, employing jagged melodic lines, fast, agitated tempo (Allegro), and dramatic, wide vocal leaps to depict the violent rage of the nations.

 2. Rhythm and Tempo

Rhythm was one of the most immediate ways to communicate an affection.

Tranquility or Peace

Slow, steady tempos and even, predictable rhythms created a feeling of calm and stability.

Bach "Air on the G String" (from Orchestral Suite No. 3 in D major, BWV 1068): 

This piece is a quintessential example of Baroque tranquility. It features a very slow tempo (Largo or Adagio), a steady, walking bass line (the predictable rhythm), and a long, gracefully flowing melodic line that creates a profound sense of calm and stability.

Excitement or Agitation

Fast tempos (like Allegro) combined with short, repetitive, driving rhythmic patterns (like a racing heartbeat) were used to signify excitement or fear.

Bach's Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 in G major, BWV 1048, Mvt. 1 (Allegro)

This movement uses relentless, short, driving motifs passed rapidly between the three violin parts, the three viola parts, and the three cello parts. The constant, fast motion and repetitive rhythmic figures create an intense, exhilarating sense of urgency and excitement.

Lamentation

Very slow, deliberate rhythms, often incorporating a rhythmic pattern known as a sigh motif (a long note followed by a short note), conveyed deep sorrow.

Bach's Crucifixus (from Mass in B Minor, BWV 232): This movement is a profound expression of sorrow. It uses a very slow tempo (Grave or Adagio), is set in a dark minor key (E minor), and is built over a repeating four-measure chromatic bass pattern (ground bass) that constantly descends, creating an unremitting sense of grief. The melodic lines in the chorus and orchestra frequently incorporate the sigh motif (long-short rhythmic pattern) to symbolize the deep lamentation and suffering of the crucifixion.

3. Harmony and Texture

The underlying chords and the density of the music reinforced the emotional state.

Happiness or Confidence

Composers overwhelmingly used major keys (which sound bright and stable) with clear, consonant harmonies to represent positive emotions.

Pachelbel's Canon in D Major: This piece, famous for its repeating bass line (ground bass), uses the bright D Major key and consistently clear, consonant harmonies to create an atmosphere of profound tranquility, stability, and quiet joy.

Sadness or Anxiety

Minor keys (which sound dark and troubled) were the main tool for expressing negative affections. Dissonances (clashing notes) were introduced strategically to create tension, which was then resolved to express the emotional conflict.

Bach's Prelude and Fugue in C Minor, BWV 847 (from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I): The prelude is instantly recognizable for its driving, restless rhythmic pattern in the left hand (an example of agitation), while the right hand moves in slow, melancholic harmonies. The C minor key sets a dark tone, and the strategic use of dissonance creates a strong sense of anxious tension and emotional conflict before resolving to the dark but stable tonic.

Repetition

Composers often repeated a specific musical idea, or figure, numerous times to ensure the listener fully absorbed the emotional message and kept the "affection" fixed.

Bach's Prelude in C Major, BWV 846 (from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I): The entire piece is built upon a single, continuous, and arpeggiated figuration (a broken chord pattern) that repeats almost without interruption from start to finish. This fixed, crystalline pattern creates and maintains a single, steady affection of tranquility and purity.

4. Instrumentation and Dynamics

Composers also selected instruments that had the right emotional color (timbre) and used specific dynamic levels.

Trumpets and Timpani (Drums)

Used exclusively for affections related to royalty, celebration, or war (joy, heroism, triumph).

Handel's "The trumpet shall sound" from Messiah: This bass aria is a powerful example, using the bright, brilliant sound of a solo trumpet alongside the voice to signify Triumph and the Divine Majesty of the resurrection. The trumpet's majestic, fanfare-like line elevates the affection from mere joy to a grand, heroic declaration

Terraced Dynamics

The use of sudden shifts between loud (forte) and soft (piano)—without gradual crescendos—provided dramatic contrast, emphasizing the fixed nature of the affection. For example, a sudden drop to soft dynamics could suggest fear or wonder.

Handel's Water Music (Suite No. 2 in D Major, Alla Hornpipe): This famous movement, intended for outdoor performance, often features sudden, striking shifts. The contrast between the brass instruments (trumpets and horns) and the full orchestra playing loudly (forte) and sections featuring only strings playing quietly (piano) creates the characteristic 'terraced' effect, emphasizing the grandeur and sudden changes of emotional color (joy/triumph) without relying on a gradual crescendo or diminuendo.

Case Studies

The Doctrines of the Affections, a concept rooted in Baroque aesthetics, emphasises the expression of specific emotions through music. Both George Frideric Handel and Johann Sebastian Bach masterfully employed these doctrines in their compositions, notably in Handel's "Messiah" and Bach's "St. Matthew Passion."

Case Study 1: George Frideric Handel's Messiah

George Frideric Handel (1685–1759) was a master of the Doctrine of the Affections, particularly in his Oratorios.

Musical Section	Affection Aimed For	Musical Elements Used
"Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion"  Aria	Joy and Exuberance	Melody: Fast-moving, ornate, and running scale passages;  Rhythm: Quick, energetic triple meter;  Harmony: Bright major key.
"He was despised" Aria	Sorrow and Deep Grief	Melody: Sparse, slow, downward-moving steps (a sigh motif);  Rhythm: Very slow tempo;  Harmony: Somber minor key, using chromaticism (half-steps) for emotional pain.

"Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion" (Aria)

"He was despised" (Aria)

Case Study 2: J.S. Bach's St Matthew Passion

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750) integrated the Doctrine of the Affections meticulously into his sacred works, using it to underscore the theological and dramatic narrative.

Musical Section	Affection Aimed For	Musical Elements Used
"Erbarme dich" Aria	Profound Regret and Sorrow	Melody: Highly expressive, weeping melodic line (often featuring the sigh motif); Rhythm: Slow, deliberate tempo (Largo); Harmony: G Minor key, poignant use of dissonance, and a solo violin (for a yearning quality).
"Kommt, ihr Töchter, helft mir klagen" Opening Chorus	Collective Grief and Solemnity	Melody: Massive, weighty chorus utilizing a slow, descending chromatic bass line (a common figure for deep lamentation); Rhythm: Slow, processional tempo; Harmony: Minor key, grand, dense texture (double chorus and orchestra).

"Erbarme dich" (Aria)

Kommt, ihr Töchter, helft mir klagen (Opening Chorus)

Conclusion

The Doctrine of the Affections was a powerful and systematic approach to musical expression. It gave Baroque composers a clear method for creating intense, focused, and powerful emotional states in their music. Instead of telling a complex emotional story, the music of Bach, Handel, and others was a detailed, rigorous study of a single emotional state. This led to the intricate musical forms, like the fugue and the concert, that define the Baroque sound.

Reference

Baroque Reference List

• Encyclopaedia Britannica (2007). Homophony | Polyphony, Counterpoint, Harmony | Britannica. [online] Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/print/article/270609 [Accessed 25 Jan. 2026].

• Encyclopaedia Britannica (2010). Monody | Music. [online] Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/art/monody [Accessed 26 Jan. 2026].

• Encyclopaedia Britannica (2011). Basso Continuo | Baroque Music, Accompaniment & Improvisation | Britannica. [online] Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/print/article/55528 [Accessed 25 Jan. 2026].

• Encyclopaedia Britannica (2017). Polyphony | Definition, Melodic Lines, & Counterpoint | Britannica. [online] Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/print/article/469009 [Accessed 25 Jan. 2026].

• Felis , L. (2012). "Baroque Music, the Library of Essays on Music Performance "Baroque Music, the Library of Essays on Music Performance. [online] State University of New York at New Paltz . Available at: https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1255&context=ppr [Accessed 25 Jan. 2026].

• Fenaroli, F. (2022). Partimenti Di Fedele Fenaroli (Fenaroli, Fedele) - IMSLP. [online] Imslp.org. Available at: https://imslp.org/wiki/Partimenti_di_Fedele_Fenaroli_(Fenaroli%2C_Fedele) [Accessed 25 Jan. 2026].

• Gan, Y. (2024). Research on the Stylistic Characteristics of Keyboard Music Works in the Baroque Period. Frontiers in Art Research, [online] 6(10). doi:https://doi.org/10.25236/far.2024.061012.

• Harriss, E. (1939). Johann Mattheson - Der Vellkommene Capellmeister. [online] Scribd. Available at: https://www.scribd.com/document/816450894/Johann-Mattheson-Der-Vellkommene-Capellmeister [Accessed 25 Jan. 2026].

• Harriss, E. (2025). Der Vollkommene CapellMeister Book II. [online] Scribd. Available at: https://www.scribd.com/document/367701596/Der-Vollkommene-CapellMeister-Book-II [Accessed 2026].

• On Baroque (2013). Basso Continuo Example (Corelli). [online] YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wTGVOvTv0zE [Accessed 25 Jan. 2026].

• Pachelbel, J. (1680). Canon and Gigue in D major, P.37. [online] IMSLP. Available at: https://imslp.org/wiki/Canon_and_Gigue_in_D_(Pachelbel,_Johann) [Accessed 25 Jan. 2026].

• Sanyal, S. (2008). Baroque Music and Musicians: a Short Study. SSRN Electronic Journal. [online] doi:https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1309130.

• Voices of Music (2008). Pachelbel Canon in D Major - the Original and Best version. [online] www.youtube.com. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JvNQLJ1_HQ0 [Accessed 25  Jan. 2026].

Glossary

Glossary of Key Terms

• Affection (Affektenlehre): A dominant aesthetic theory (c. 1600–1750) stating that music should evoke and maintain a single, fixed, and rationalized emotional state per movement.

• Basso Ostinato (Ground Bass): A short, repeating melodic pattern in the bass line that serves as the foundation for a composition; often used in the Baroque to establish a persistent emotional atmosphere.

• Chromaticism: The use of notes outside the standard major or minor scale (half-steps) to create a yearning, painful, or tense sound.

• Consonant Harmonies: Chords and intervals that sound stable and pleasant, typically used to represent positive affections like joy or tranquility.

• Dissonance: The use of clashing notes to create tension and emotional conflict, frequently utilized in minor-key compositions to express sadness or anxiety.

• Disjunct Melody: A melodic line characterized by wide, frantic leaps rather than smooth steps, often used to portray rage or agitation.

• Figuration: A repeating musical pattern or "figure" (such as a broken chord) used to maintain a consistent emotional state throughout a piece.

• Sigh Motif: A specific rhythmic pattern consisting of a long note followed by a short note, used to musically represent suffering and lamentation.

• Terraced Dynamics: Sudden, dramatic shifts between loud (forte) and soft (piano) volume levels without gradual increases or decreases.

• Timbre (Emotional Color): The specific quality or character of a musical sound that distinguishes different instruments; composers selected specific timbres (like trumpets for triumph) to match the intended affection.